The White Guards Against The Red Internationale

One of the peculiarities of the White counter-revolution in Russia was the fact that it emerged and developed when the World War was not yet over. As Germany was the enemy of the Russian Empire during the World War, it was German command that planned to send Lenin and his associates to St. Petersburg in a sealed wagon. They were to become a factor of destabilization, their sole task to remove Russia from the European theatre of war operations.

Having established his own dictatorship within the Congress of Soviets (councils) Lenin called upon workers and peasants for a revolutionary uprising. On the cold night of October 25, 1917, after the storm of Zimny Dvoretz (the Winter Palace – the Tsar’s residence in Saint Petersburg) was over, Lenin declared the official asseveration of the Soviet Power (i.e. the power of Soviets).

“Land to peasants”, “Factories for workers”, “Peace with no annexations and no contributions”, “Convocation of the Constituent Assembly” – were the official slogans declared. But none of them were actually fulfilled. But in fact it was the bloody regime of the War Communism (Vojenny Kommunizm), headed predominantly by Jews and ethnic non-Russians, that was established.

War and Revolution

At the second stage of the World War after Brussilov’s breakthrough in 1916, the army headquarters headed by a most talented general Mikhail Alekseev, the whole situation at the western fronts was favourable to Russia. But the army was much undermined by the activity of revolutionary provocateurs that encouraged soldiers and junior officers to desert the army. Later, the first units of RKKA (Raboche-Krestyanskaya Krasnaya Armiya, “The Red Army of Workers and Peasants”) were formed of those deserters.

A Ukrainian-born Jew, Lev Trotsky-Bronstein (1879-1940) occupied the position of Narkom (people's commissar) for Military Affairs and Defence in the new-born Soviet Government. It was due to his personal initiative, that the reproachful Treaty of Brest was signed on March 3, 1918. After this Treaty, the western territories of the Empire, most developed in economic terms (approximately 1/3 of the population and a half of industry) were torn away. Taking advantage of Russia’s temporary weakness, the Germans managed to occupy Baltic States, a part of Byelorussia and Caucasus. Moreover, they technically reigned in Ukraine, where hetman Skoropadsky became their protégé. The results of three years of intense battles at the western fronts were annulled!

Military-Revolutionary Committee (Vojenno-Revolutsionny Komitet or VRK) was established instead of former state bodies and Provisional Government. Numerous minor comities of the Bolsheviks, as well as punitive mass terror agencies, such as ChK (later GPU and NKVD) were also formed.

Reckoning on the belief of common people in the State of Social Justice, the red commissars called upon the people to accomplish the Global Revolution and to establish the Global Dictatorship of the Proletariat. For the sake of “class struggle” major estates, factories and houses were expropriated by the Bolsheviks all over the country. Simultaneously, representatives of aristocracy, clergy, higher command of the army and upper class (wealthy citizens) were virtually exterminated. The economy was tumbling due to mass disturbances and devastations.

Most of the population first believed the power of Bolsheviks to be temporary cared more about saving their life and property. But experienced politicians and leaders gradually began leading the nation to understanding, that it is necessary to resist revolutionary chaos. The counter-revolution began, the White chosen its colour, as the white colour traditionally symbolized monarchy and glory on the Russian banner.

First attempts of armed resistance

The centres of the armed resistance appeared all over the territories of the former Empire – from North-West to Far East. But they were different in terms of scales, duration of armed actions, and their results. Spontaneous (non-organized) outrages occurred among the peasants quite often, but they were severely suppressed by the Red Army. The remains of organized military forces, faithful to the Tsar and Fatherland, took an attempt to unite into a unified solid front. Together they formed a White Movement (or Belaya Gvardiya, the White Guards) with active centres and military headquarters all over Russia.

The first attempts of armed resistance to the revolutionary power were taken during the reign of bourgeois-democratic Provisional Government, headed by Alexander Kerensky, long before the Bolsheviks performed their coup d'etat. The rebellion of general Kornilov that took place in August 1917 showed that the very idea of Democratic Parliamentary was unacceptable for military and patriotic circles.

General Lavr Kornilov (1870-1918) was a hereditary Cossack and an outstanding military leader. Having graduated Artillerist military school and later the Joint Staff Academy (with a gold medal for outstanding achievements), he served as a military attaché of the Russian embassy in China. He began his military career as an officer during the Russian-Japanese war (1904-1905), promoted to the post of commander-in-chief of the Russian Imperial Army during the First World War. He was an experienced commander, decorated with St. George Cross and enjoyed a high prestige among common soldiers of the army. He was the first to raise the banner of the White Struggle and many hoped him to become a possible dictator, capable of suppressing the coming communist revolution.

On August 27, 1917 general Kornilov addressed the Russian people with a telegram, in which he accused the Bolsheviks of pandering the Germans and called upon his compatriots to join his ranks for the salvation of the Fatherland. He swore “to lead the people to the Constituent Assembly, on which they can take their destiny in their own hands, to choose the mode of the new State”. But Kornilov did not enjoy much support on this stage of his struggle and had to lay down his arms.

The communist Revolution broke out. The famous women’s death battalion (Batalion Smerti), led by commander Maria Bochkareva demonstrated the true example of heroism and devotedness to Fatherland. Together with several hundreds of military cadets they were defending the Winter Palace against the Bolsheviks. This unique female subdivision was created in the Middle of the First World War for keeping up the morale of the soldiers, who lost their faith in victory. The battalion numbered about 3 000 of the Russian Amazons and had its own banner, that was solemnly sanctified on the Red Square. But the armed women were not able to withstand the armed revolutionists and their allies.

Submerging into the depth of revolutionary chaos, Russia had to discontinue the military operations on the fronts of the World War. Due to Bolshevik coup, the country has become an easy prey for its former allies. In this situation only a regular counter-revolutionist army, led by the professionals of the Tsarist school was capable of withstanding the dangerous enemy that occupied the key posts of the state. There was a need of strong-willed true White leaders to unite the whole nation. The counter-revolution soon began to acquire the form of an organized armed resistance.

The first attempt of liberating St. Petersburg of the Bolsheviks took place at Pulkovsky heights on November 12, 1917. It was taken by joint efforts of Kerensky (who managed to flee from the capital) and General Pyotr Krasnov (1869-1947). Virtually, it was the beginning of armed White struggle. But the squadron of 700 mounted Cossacks was not enough for accomplishing this (difficult) mission. The riots and outrages of workers all over the capital only aggravated the situation. In these circumstances, general Alekseev and his surroundings (on Nov. 15) took a decision of forming the Voluntary Army.

The Voluntary Army and the “Ice Campaign” of 1918

General Mikhail Alekseev (1957-1918) was an outstanding military leader, a true scientist of war and well-educated man. He was born to a family of a military officer and followed the path of his father. Alekseev finished the Moscow Infantry Military School and the Russian-Turkish war of 1877 was his “baptism of fire”. After that, appointed a professor, Alekseev got a chair of Military History in the Joint Staff Academy. There his outstanding talents were shown. Alekseev did not occupy himself with staff service only – during the War with Japan he was appointed to the army after his own appeal petition. Shortly before World War I, Alekseev was appointed the head of Kiev Command for outstanding military achievements. During the War he was in charge of Southern-Eastern front and it was due to his talent of commander, that the critical situation on the German front was improved.

Having Tsar Nicolas II abdicated, the Provisional Government appointed Alekseev Supreme Commander-in-Chief. But shortly after that the general was dismissed due to his critical attitude towards the policy of the bourgeois government. After the power was taken by the Bolsheviks, Alekseev and his comrades-in-arms had to retreat south to begin the new stage of the war.

On the river of Don there lived free Cossacks that proved their fidelity to Fatherland by means of military service for centuries. It was there, that the forming of the first White Guards began. The core of the army was grouped around “White Cross”, a secret society, formed by army officers. Soon, generals Kornilov and Denikin as well as atamans (Cossack commanders) Kaledin (1861-1918) and Dutov (1879-1921) joined the headquarters of the Voluntary Army. The Cossacks of Don, Orenburg and Baikal regions, outraged with the Jewish-Communist dictatorship and revolutionary terror rose to join the volunteers. “There rose in their noble rage true Christians, sons of Don and heeded the call of freedom!” – the lines of old Cossack song say. The so-called “Ice Campaign” of Volunteer Corps led by Kornilov of became the first notable event of the first stage of the war. It began in late February 1918 and proceeded under trying conditions of winter, four thousand volunteers of high morale to break thro the Red frontlines after crossing Don. It was the “baptism of fire” for the White Army and Alekseev called it “a candle of faith and hope in the darkness that devoured Russia”. But the campaign failed, the White volunteers outnumbered by the Reds had to retreat. General Kornilov fell as a true warrior in battle of Ekatrinodar.

Bolshevik Dictatorship and the Red Terror

The military leaders believed that it is an organized armed force that was needed for recovery of peace and civil order. While peaceful citizens, confused by constant propaganda, never abandoned a hope of restoring peace by legal democratic means. On January 18, 1918 the All-Russian Constituent Assembly supported by working class demonstrators began to function in Saint Petersburg. But despite being peaceful, the Assembly was immediately broken up by armed Bolsheviks, more than ten demonstrators killed. One more liberal illusion perished. Instead of developing democracy and protecting civil rights and liberties, the Bolsheviks concentrated on strengthening their own power. Nikolai Krylenko (1885-1938), a prominent member of the Bolshevik Party, Supreme Commander-in-Chief and the head of VRK (Vojenno-Revolutzionny Komitet or Military-Revolutionary Committee) took a decision of forming the Red Army of Workers and Peasants (RKKA). Compulsory mobilization of all male citizens aged from 18 to 40 began. In the severe conditions and ideological chaos of the Revolution a part of Tsarist military corps joined the Bolsheviks: of 130 000 officers of the Imperial Army, about 30 000 joined the RKKA, including such prominent higher command officers as Brusilov, Snesarev, Svechin and Tuchachevsky.

The military operations on the fronts of the First World War were suspended, due to the revolutionary “Decree on Peace”. Now the Bolsheviks were much more preoccupied with defending “Socialist Fatherland” and “achievements of the Revolution”. Virtually it meant further class struggle and fratricidal civil war. Due to this reason many of the recruits refused to fight under the Red banners. Cases of desertion and changing fighting side by the recruits often occurred at the fronts of the Civil War.

The Higher Command of RKKA officially considered such actions to be desertion and, due to new laws, the deserters were to be shot on sight. This “method” was first applied by the above-mentioned Lev Trotsky, who wrote: “It is impossible to build a strong army without repressions. One can not lead masses of people to death, without having death penalty as one of means of punishment. We must place a soldier between possible death in front of him and inevitable death behind”.

It was not accidental that the five-point red star (or pentagram) together with hammer and sickle was chosen to be the emblem of RKKA. (On medals and banners of the Red Army it was often depicted in an upturned position, which also required explanation). When speaking on the 5th annual Congress of the Soviets in summer 1918, Trotsky explained this choice: when the rebellion of the Jews against the Roman rule, led by Bar Kochba, took place in Palestine (132-135 A.D.), the Red star was depicted on the Jewish banner. In other words, for the Bolsheviks the star was a symbol of revolutionary fight against Empire.

In early spring 1918 the Bolsheviks, deliberately trying to “turn a World War into a Civil War” really had to face the second outer front opened. In March and April, the troops of the Entente were deployed in Russia: English and French troops in Murmansk and Archangel, French troops in Odessa and Sevastopol, English troops, supported by Japanese and Americans in Vladivostok.

Within the chaos of Intervention, a Czech Corps of many thousand soldiers (whose leaders were in connection with headquarters of Entente) excited a rebellion in Volga region. The English troops entered Turkistan and Transcaucasia; Romania occupied Bessarabia. The Russian Empire was dissolving, turning into badly-controlled regions without unified government. Meanwhile, the German command continued to support Lenin. With the help of Mirbach (the ambassador of Germany in Soviet Republic) they transferred to the Bolsheviks more then 3 million golden marks monthly; in May 1918 – 40 million marks more were transferred. The Word War virtually continued on the territory of the dissolving Empire, and rivalling states continued to take part in it, either directly or indirectly.

Lenin understood very well, that a union of Entente forces with the inside oppositional forces poses a great threat to the Bolshevik government. It was the reason, he openly declared of mass terror against all those, who were opposed to the “proletarian dictatorship”, including his own yesterday’s revolutionary comrades: Mensheviks, Socialist Revolutionists (Essers) and Anarchists. With several hundreds of the left Esers arrested as hostages, the “leader of the World Revolution” calls upon ruthless mass executions on June 26, 1918: “We must encourage and promote the mass terror against the counter-revolutionists, especially in Saint Petersburg, as it is a decisive example”.

On July 1918 after Lenin’s personal order (and partially due to initiative of his party comrade Jacob Sverdlov) the Tsar and his family was executed (with no trial and investigation) in Yekaterinburg. Several days later, other six representatives of the Romanov dynasty were killed.

Having suppressed the independent press (that was more or less influeintial and continued to comment on current events, influencing in this or that way the opinion of the people), the Bolsheviks began systematic persecution of the Church. As a key religious institution it still had a widespread influence on many common Orthodox people and was an evident ideological opponent to the policy of aggressive atheism, promoted by the Bolsheviks.

Concerning the peasants, they were supposed to be an ally of the workers in class struggle. Nevertheless, a severe politics of “prodrazverstka” (or “war for bread”) began in their respect, more then 75 000 Red Army Soldiers taking part in it. Virtually, the products produced were expropriated on the spot. All over the country not less then 300 peasant rebellions took place.

The workers were also dissatisfied with the Soviet power, since instead of social justice, promised by the Bolsheviks, they got nothing but starvations and hardships. Old trade unions were dismissed, freedom of speech suppressed, strikes virtually banned. Rebellions of Cossacks, peasants, qualified workers and political adversaries of Bolshevism flared up all over the country.

The Bolsheviks were aware and concerned about danger of armed resistance all over the country, as well as danger of foreign intervention. The government was soon moved to Moscow, farther from the frontlines. In the “new” old capital of Russia, ruby Red Stars soon rose over the towers of Kremlin as a symbol of the Bolshevik power. In Moscow, the Bolsheviks took a decision of fulfilling the strategy of the World Revolution by organising KOMINTERN. It was financed from expropriated valuables of Tsar’s family and Russian monasteries (predominantly gold); and partially – due to export of “excess of bread”, taken by force from the peasants. Peaceful civilians, terrified by revolutions, wars, mass terror and starvations flea from both capitals; Moscow and Saint Petersburg soon became deserted. Only within three years (1918-1920) not less then 5.75 million civilians died. The world science acknowledged it as one of the greatest demographic catastrophes.

The South as the Citadel of White Guards

Towns and cities of the north were devoured by the revolution. Civilians and former soldiers of the army tried to flee south, since the southern regions were not controlled by Bolsheviks and anarchists.

Southern Russia soon turned into a powerful citadel of counter-revolutionary forces. The remains of Tsarist army gathered there from all over the Empire. Soon, new military units of the emerging White Army began to form. It was on Don, that the volunteer army, led by general Denikin, underwent its “rebirth”: in January 1919 Denikin joined forces with the Don army of general Krasnov. This army has become a basis for armed counter-revolutionary forces of southern Russia.

General Anton Denikin (1872-1947) was born to a poor family in Warsaw province. Having chosen military career, he graduated from the Joint Staff academy. His “baptism of fire” took place during the Russian-Japanese war. He was promoted to the rank of General-Major in 1914. Apart from military service, Denikin was also known as a writer and a prolific memoirist: those who red his first short stories and sketches on military life, never thought, that he will become one of the most famous memorialist of the Civil War.

As Denikin was a comrade-in-arms of Kornilov since the Ice Campaign, after the death of Kornilov it was Denikin, who raised the banner of White Struggle. Under Denikin’s command, the White Army had a lot of military achievements. It took an offensive campaign in direction of Moscow, and soon occupied large territories with approximately 42 million people: Charkov, Kiev, Kursk, Orel, Voronezh and Tsaritsin, as well as territories of Northern Caucasus were liberated. Denikin’s Army posed a great threat to the Bolsheviks: the revolutionists were actually surrounded by a ring of counter-revolutionary forces. Strong combatant forces were sent against it. After enduring bloody battles, Denikin’s troops had to retreat from the cities, it had occupied before.

Novorossiysk was the last town to be left by the White Guards. Denikin himself evacuated on a ship and continued his struggle in immigration. Due to his authority and influence, Denikin soon became an influential and prominent social leader of the Russian émigrés abroad. His famous book “Studies on the Russian Distempers”, written after the events of 1921-1926 (in which he reflected on the causes, reasons and possible results of the Revolution) were published in Paris, Berlin and the USA, where Denikin emigrated later. He died in America in 1947, a patriot loyal to his fatherland till death.

The Whites did not manage to connect the armies of South and East: a temporary tactical alliance with Ukrainian troops of Petlyra (a radical anarchist) as well as the Ukrainian National Army could not be long-lasting, since White Guards and the Anarchists pursued different purposes.

Troops of General Nikolai Yudenich (1862-1933), in the northwest were actually separated from the main forces of the Counter-revolution. Yudenich failed to occupy St. Petersburg, despite massive help from Western countries, including the help of the so-called “Freikors”, volunteer corpse in which anti-communists of all nations fought shoulder to shoulder. The Red Army, supported by Estonian separatists, stopped the offensive of Yudenich under the village of Gatchina.

Large-scaled advance of Denikin’s troops along over 1000 km. of the frontline was stopped. It became a fatal flaw of the White Joint Staff, since the Whites were many times outnumbered by the Reds. Apart from that, the Bolsheviks were indirectly supported by various armed gangs of anarchists, most of which were ordinary felons. Considering the famous Anarchist Army of Nestor Machno – it fought against the central power, both Red and White.

Crimea - the Southern Citadel of the Whites

Having established and strengthened the “Dictatorship of the Proletariat” in Central Russia, the Bolsheviks launched a counter-offensive in East and South. It took RKKA great efforts to force the Whites to the peninsula of Crimea that was isolated from the continent. In the first years of the revolution, a massive political struggle between various ethnic and political forces was on the rise in Crimea (or the “province of Tavria” or “Taurida”). Apart from Russians, Tatar, Ukrainian and Jewish communities were active there. Tatar nationalists managed to convoke a Tatar National Assembly (“Kurultai”), aimed at creating a Muslim state after the traditions of Girei Khans, with Bahchisarai as capital city. Central Rada (council) of the Ukrainian People’s Republic was in favour of separatist tendencies (at the respect of Russia) and supported the independent Tatar government at the first stages. The Russian White leaders had various attitudes towards Tatars. All in all, the Council of People’s representatives that created headquarters of Crimea Troops in Simferopol regarded the Tatars as possible allies against the Reds. For example, Kerensky was in favour of creating special Muslim units.

The Bolsheviks approached from the Sea; they were supported by revolutionary soldiers and sailors in the harbours of Sevastopol and Yevpatoria. Having assembled a 40 000 strong army under the command of Provisional revolutionary committee, the Reds defeated the Army of Crimea. In early 1918 the Power of the Soviets was declared on the peninsula.

The Tatar government and the Council of People’s representatives were dissolved, the Socialist republic of Taurida declared in March 1918. Much later, it gained the status of Crimea SSR (Socialist Soviet Republic). Hardly had a month passed, the Bolsheviks had to face another threat: the German troops deployed in Crimea, the Bolsheviks had to withstand. When the attack of the interventionists was repulsed, Taurida was liberated from the Bolsheviks by the troops of general Wrangel.

Pyotr Wrangel (1878-1928) was a strong-willed and charismatic leader. He was a descendent of ancient Scandinavian stock, the representatives of which served the Russian Tsars for centuries. (All in all, this family gave the world 7 field-marshals, 7 admirals, and more then 30 generals; 18 generals and two admirals in Russia). As worthy comrade-in-arms of the former leaders of the Whites, Wrangel headed the government and the troops of Crimea in the very crucial moment when the White army at the continent was suffering great defeats. In summer 1918, having reorganized the Volunteer Army into a regular one, Wrangel began preparing the counter-offence against the Red Army. Simultaneously, he improved the civil life on the peninsula, having adopted a bunch of progressive laws (e.g. the land reform) and improved military policy.

Not long before his eastern campaign, general Wrangel took a symbolic action of instituting the order of Saint Nicolas. He addressed the people with a public letter:

“Hear, Russian people, what we are fighting for.We want revenge for our faith disgraced and our temples desecrated! We are fighting for liberation of the Russian people from the yoke of communists, of vagrants and felons that brought Holy Russia to ruin. For ending the internecine war! For the peasants to have a chance of owing the land as property and working in peace. We are fighting for the true Freedom and Justice to rule in Russia. For Russian people to chose the leader by themselves. Help, me, true sons of the Nation, to save our Fatherland!”

This call was heard. Soon, those who were looking for a firm citadel to revenge on the communist dictatorship (settled in the capitals) moved south. The Russian army of Wrangel grew to be 80 000 strong, which made it possible to support Cossack resistance of Don and Kuban. When the Soviet-Polish war broke our (1920-1921) wrangle took a decision of striking on the rears and back areas of the Red Army. The Reds, weakened by a war on two fronts, had to retreat. But when the Bolsheviks saw, that the whites head eastern to join forces with the Cossacks on the continent, they changed their strategy immediately. In October 1920, despite the conditions of an armistice reproachful for the Soviet Union, the war with Poland was officially over. The red Commissars made the army of the southern front 250 000 strong, concentrating the maximum of their forces on storming the stronghold of the Whites in Crimea. On October 28 they launched an offence.

First, Wrangel’s army was stopped by the Reds, commanded on the Southern front by a prominent member of the Bolshevik party Michael Frunze. After that, a specially formed Cavalry of Budyony was sent. Finally, on a cold November night the Reds took a wade in the icy waters of Sivash gulf, to bypass the Perekop Isthmus, which was very well protected by the Whites. Despite having lost hundreds of soldiers killed and wounded under the fire of machine guns, the Revolutionary forces managed to get to the peninsula and to fortify their positions for further offence.

The units of the Whites that defended Perekop were shocked and demoralized. The army of Wrangel had to resist and protect the rears. After November 15 1920 a mass evacuation from the Island began – first, peaceful citizens were evacuated, then – soldiers and officers of the army. Sometimes, the evacuation acquired a form of panic flee. All in all, over 120 ships brought more then 150 000 refugees to Istanbul (Constantinople).

The reprisals and massacres against the “enemies of the Revolution” began in Crimea. The Revolutionary Committee of Crimea, led by a Hungarian Jew Bela Kun was formed. In three years of Wrangel’s rule in Crimea, about 1.5 thousand were arrested by the Whites, no more then 300 shot. As for the Red terror, not less then 50 000 people died on the peninsula (according to other statistical data – up to 100 000). Rozalia Zalkind, a Jewish communist from Ukraine, excelled much during the repression: she headed a political department of the Red Army and took part in executions by shooting herself. The tragic epic of the White movement in the south was over.

Civil War on the Far East

Having achieved a temporary victory, the Bolsheviks managed to establish a severe dictatorship in central Russia in the first three years of the Revolution, despite unprecedented victims among civilians and territorial tolls. But it never led to piece, prosperity or justice, originally promised by the Bolsheviks. Due to political and economic crisis, the industry declined on 82% compared with 1913.

The number of wealthy Russian refugees (émigrés) grew constantly and made over 1.5 m. by the end of the Civil War. The villagers, having nowhere to run, protested and in their own ways fought for the rights, suppressed by the Bolsheviks. As a result, numerous peasant outrages have grown to be a popular war.

The Tambov outrage led by Alexander Antonov (1888-1922) took place in 1920-1921, a whole army of partisan peasants 30 000 strong formed soon.

Antonov was a Right socialist-revolutionist and a patriot of Russia. He fought against the “suppression of the people by the capitalist exploitations” during the Tsarist age. But when the Bolsheviks actually usurped the power by taking advantage of the revolutionary situation, Antonov declared a war to the impostors who spoke in the name of workers and peasants. He addressed the people with a leaflet, in which he called upon “the Russian Warrior to arise and to save the Motherland, by liberating Moscow from the hands of the Red butchers”.

For suppressing the Tambov uprising, Red marshal Tuchachevsky sent more then 100 000 soldiers of the regular army, including mercenaries from Lithuanian and Chinese units of the Red Army (over 40 000 Chinese served in RKKA during the civil war and after it). The punishers used armoured troops, aircrafts and chemical weapons. They were severe to the local population, sometimes burning the houses together with the families. Although, the guerrillas were not numerous, it took the punishers almost a year to suppress the rebellion. But despite the fact, the armed partisans could be seen in the forest of Tambov long after that.

In March 1921 another rebellion was suppressed by the Bolsheviks – the rebellion of Krondstadt (St. Petersburg). It was started by the sailors of the Baltic navy and one of the slogans of the rebellion was: “Rule with no Jews and communists!” The rebellions of the peasants took place all over the country: in Ural, Siberia and Volga regions. Hundreds and thousands were killed as a result of armed clashes with peasants.

Mass killings of wealthy peasants (known as Kulak annihilation or raskulachivanie) and landowners during the establishment of the Soviet power in the villages, led to devastation of large farms, that resulted in mass starvations. The 1921 starvation (golodomor) took place in Volga region and began spreading all over Russia. In the cities, that were left without supplies of foodstuffs the poorest citizens were destined to die, as well as some of the representatives of intellectual elite, who deliberately refused to accept food allowances of the Bolsheviks.

In order to escape critics, the Bolsheviks began systematic persecution of the dissenters. After personal order of Lenin, more then 200 representatives of intelligentsia and cultural workers were sent out of the country on a specially prepared ship: those were writers, philosophers, and scientists such as Berdyaev, Iliin, Lossky, Karsavin and many others. Famous and prolific poets such as Gumilev, Esenin or Klyev were either killed or driven to suicide. On the writers and poets, who survived the persecution, a strong censorship of Glavlit (Central Committee for Literature) was imposed.

***

The white counter-revolutionist movement in Eastern Russia had a lot of talented politicians and leaders within its ranks. The name of Admiral Alexander Kolchak deserves a special mention.

Alexander Kolchak was an outstanding leader with a remarkable biography. He got a professional education in Naval Military school and took part in several expeditions in the Pacific Ocean; he also commanding an ice-boat during an expedition to the North Pole. All in all, he crossed four oceans during his career.

In the First World War for his outstanding ahievments, Kolchak was appointed a commander of Black Sea Navy. First, he was in favour of the Revolution, but having understood, that it leads to devastation of the Fatherland, he started his own resistance.

He began an armed resistance to Bolsheviks and their allies: in the Far East, Siberia and Ural regions. In September 1918 Kolchak was appointed a minister of defence of the Provisional Government. In January 1919 his new-born army took Perm. The army soon grew 112 000 strong and took an offence on a wide front – from Uralsk and Orenburg to Vyatka. Inspired by the success of the admiral, brothers-in-arms from his surroundings as well as many other representatives of White movement consider him the Supreme Ruler of Russia.

A strange, ambiguous and even mysterious role on the Eastern front of the Civil war was played by the so-called Czechoslovak corps. It consisted predominantly of the soldiers of Austro-Hungarian army, more then 30 000 soldiers imprisoned during the First World War. Originally, they were dislocated in the area of Ukraine.

After the revolution, the agents of Entente managed to “replace” the corps under French command, that demanded that the corps must by sent to Western Europe. It could have been rational to send the soldiers by ships thro the harbours of the Black sea.

But due to some logics, that now seem strange, on 26 March 1918 the Revolutionary government took a decision of evacuating the so-called “internationalist warriors” thro Siberia to Vladivostok, obliging them to hading their weapons in the hands of the local soviets. Only few of the Czech soldiers returned home travelling thro Europe. The Bolsheviks were afraid (and their fears were quite understandable) the Czechs would join forces with the volunteer army in the South. As a result of this provocation, the troops of the Czech corps stretched out over the Siberian trunk-railway over 7000 km. long!

On their way eastern, the prisoner soldiers excited a rebellion and joined forces with the counter-revolutionists: Esers (Socialist-Revolutionists), Kadets (constitutional democrats) Esdeks (social-democrats). Together with the Whites, they conquered Novosibirsk (Novonikolaevsk), Penza, Syzran, Tomsk, Omsk, Samara and Krasnoyarsk. After that, having launcher a counter-offence, they liberated Ufa, Simbirsk, Ekaterinburg and Kazan. In Volga and Ural regions, as well as in Siberia, the corpse assisted local authorities in creating provisional governments for convocation of the Constituent Assembly. It became one of the turning points of the Civil War.

Having prevented the junction of White Armies of the East and South, the Reds launched a counter-offence in Ural and Siberia in early 1920. Apart from frontal attacks they also used revolutionary propaganda and active secret services (counter-reconnaissance) aimed at eroding the enemy from inside. The Whites were outnumbered by the Reds; the forces of the army of Kolchak (together with the Czech corps) were much weakened.

Neither personal virility nor the fortitude of the Admiral could deter the aggression of the Reds. After the retreat from Irkutks, the power taken by the Left Esers, the Kolchak was forced to give the command of the army to ataman Georgy Semenov (1890-1946).

On January 4, 1920 betrayed by his comrades-in-arms Admiral Kolchak abdicated. In this situation General Denikin became the supreme ruler of Russia. Under circumstances that remain not clear even today, the Kolchak was taken into custody by the Czechs, by whom on Jan. 14 he was handed over to the Esers. The latter had Kolchak hanged over to the Bolseviks and he was shot after the personal order of Lenin.

Further history of the White Guards of the East was quite tragic. The troops of General Vladimir Kapell (1883-1920), who died soon after Kolchak, took an attempt of a severe winter crossing-march thro Baikal Lake to Chita. General-Lieutenant Mikhail Diterichs (1874-1937), the successor of Kolchak as the Supreme Ruler of Russia, had to retreat and later to immigrate after two more years of resisting to the Reds. All in all, hundreds of thousands people immigrated thro Vladivostok (as well as thro Crimea), including more then 56 thousand civilians, registered at the Czech corps.

In the Region of the Eastern Seas (Primorie) the battles against the Reds went on till autumn 1922. Later, the remains of the White units of atamans Dutov and Semenov left Russia thro China and Korea. Minor armed conflicts and clashes occurred in the Far East before 1923, but in those conflicts primarily guerrillas, not organized troops took part.

Baron Ungern and his Mongolian Troops

The story of Asian Cavalry, led by Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg (1886-1921), a distant relative of the Tsar and a fanatical monarchist, deserves a special mention. The most famous facts of Ungern’s biography are connected with Mongolia, where he wanted to create a new Empire of his own and platz’d’arme for the White Revenge. In the years of the Revolution, this vast mountainous land had lost its independence (that it attained in 1911, supported by Russia). The Chinese were planning to take advantage of Mongolia’s temporary weakness and to conquer their neighbour to the North by sending troops to the city of Urga (now Ulan-Bator).

Having collected the remains of ataman Semenov’s divisions (800 mounted Cossacks and 6 cannons), Ungern made an audacious plan of liberating Urga from foreign invaders. First, looking for support of the common people, he addressed to the Mongols with a religious proclamation. After that performed a sophisticated clandestine operation and managed to liberate Bogdo-Geghen, the Chan of Mongolia from the occupied capital city. Finally, he attacked Urga and took by storm the city, defended by a Chinese garrison of more then 10 000 soldiers.

Having received a point of rest and supported by the natives, the baron enthusiastically started to incarnate his plan. He believed, that after the Bolshevik revolution one can no longer hope to restore traditional monarchies in Europe, for the peoples of the west are perverted by the ideas of materialism and socialism: “Russia is devastated in terms of economy, morals and spirituality; its future is appalling and can hardly be predicted. The revolution will triumph and the higher culture will perish under the onslaughts of coarse, grasping and ignorant mob, griped by the madness of revolutionary destructions and led by international Jewry” – Ungern wrote in one of his letters.

The baron stated that for establishing peace, spirituality and order in the world, one should not hope for help of the degrading West. Instead, he proposed to create the “Kingdom of Middle” in the East. It was to unite Mongolia, Sindzyan and Tibet, the White Empire of the East aimed at eradicating the world evil that came to the earth to “destroy the Divine within the souls of men”.

For fulfilling this divine mission, the Baron adopted Buddhism. He later married a Chinese lady of noble origin and was awarded a title of Prince of Mongolia by Chan Bogdo-Gegen and. Later, he proudly wore a Prince caftan of finest Chinese silk together with the uniform of Tsarist officer. The Baron began sending official letters, in which he proposed the volunteers of the white armies to join his troops.

The remains of white units from Baikal region, Tuva and Mongolian steppes gathered under the banners of the Baron (today named “the God of War”). Together with brigades, led by atamans Kazagrandi, Kaigorodov, Bakich and others, the army of Ungern soon grew to be 4 000 sabres and dozens of artillery units strong. The army was able to perform minor raids along the coasts of Selenga River. It also attacked Kyahcta, a small town on Mongolian border, where the Bolsheviks had Chan Suhe-Bator as their protégé. It was in this period, that the white unit were particularly cruel to communists, commissars and Jews, for whom (according to the Baron) “only one punishment was adequate – death!” But the Militia of the Baron was outnumbered by the Reds and their efforts were not enough.

An expeditionary corps was sent from Chita to destroy the troops of Ungern. It had 7.5 thousand of infantry, 2.5 thousands of sabres, 20 field guns, 4 aircrafts and 4 river steamers. As the Reds were supported by Mongolian revolutionists, they managed to suppress the resistance of counter-revolutionists. The White leaders of the east, including Ungern himself were imprisoned and interrogated, later executed.

The red terror of the Far East had its own peculiarities, since not only monasteries and Khans’ estates, but also Russian bureaus and official institutions were looted. Much later, Lenin annulled the state debt of Mongolia of 5 million golden rubbles and awarded Suche-Bator a decoration with Red Star during the official visit of the Mongolian leader to Kremlin in 1921.

Conclusions

Those were not only White monarchists but also Social-Revolutionists, Democrats and Anarchists, as well as major part of free Cossacks and wealthy peasants that confronted the Bolsheviks in the Civil War. The whole chaotic revolutionary situation brought confusion and hindered the people from realization of the danger of Proletarian Dictatorship, which in reality turned out to be a tyranny of Bolsheviks, headed by Lenin and Stalin.

It is a false statement that during the Civil War Russians fought Russians. In reality it was the Red International that fought the White Guards. It is true however, that Russians as well as Cossacks from different regions of the Empire, Ukrainians, Germans and Czechs were present at the command posts of the Revolutions. But within the Revolutionary leadership, Russians were absolute minority – Russian-speaking Jews, Ukrainians, Poles, Lithuanians, Magyars, Tatars, Chinese and minor Caucasian peoples prevailed. The international units of the Reds counted more then 200 000 people.

All in all the Red army won rather due to revolutionary fanaticism and numeral superiority, but not strategic successes and talents of the leaders. The Red Army occupied key strategic positions, plus it was approximately ten times as big as the White army. But it had a lot of deserters and was close to entire collapse in 1919.

Both fighting sides exhibited brutality, but the Whites never made terror an essence of their politics as the Red commissars did. They never exterminated whole classes or groups of population and never created barrage troops or concentration camps. All in all, the civil war turned out to be a real racial genocide.

Declaring and promoting opposite ideological slogans and ideas, the Reds and the Whites slaughtered each other in bloody war. Their readiness to spill one’s blood and to march for internecine battle was reflected in the songs of those ruthless times. When marching and before the attacks, the Reds often sang a song with the following lines:

We will march to fight for the Power of Soviets And die like one fighting for that.

The Whites used the same tune, but the lyrics were different:

We will march to fight for Holy Russia And spill like one our blood for her.

But whatever was the text of the song, the blood of Russian soldiers and officers was always spilt, which almost ruined the gene pool of the Nation.

Most of the peasants believed in the revolutionary Decree of Land and never expected the Bolsheviks to turn against one of their main class allies within several years. They never saw the whites as their potential protectors and mostly waged their own local war, fighting on their own during the rebellions.

The people traditionally believed all of the Tsarist generals to be monarchists, but in reality, their ideological views were much broader. In fact, in the beginning of the revolutions, most of the Generals and high army officials were in favour of dethronement of the Tsar. For instance, General Kornilov and Admiral Kolchak arrested most prominent members of Tsar’s family in St. Petersburg and Crimea.

The Tsarist officers overestimated their own forces, as they got bogged down in the fronts of the World War. They hoped for miracle of Christian faith, for bravery of Cossacks, for military support of the West and for help of peasants. But none of their hopes came true. This firm belief in the power of Truth and triumph of divine Justice and Law, the White guards maintained in immigration. One of the most prominent leaders of the Russian émigrés wrote in his diary: “Years will pass, the communists will be gone, and the Revolution will be but a thing of the past. But the white cause, renewed in this struggle won’t be gone: its spirit will stay with our future generations and will become a part of our National being and will help to build New Russia”.